I was only able to find two models being used for Indigenous language instruction in adult learners; natural approach second language acquisition theory, and a language revitalization initiative based on language immersion. The natural approach is based on five hypotheses:
•Acquisition-learning hypothesis;
•Natural order hypothesis;
•Monitor hypothesis;
•Input or comprehension hypothesis;
•Active filter hypothesis;
and suggests that the adult learner is more capable of learning the grammatical rules and structures of language, so that the academics of language learning are accomplished at a faster pace (Gordon, 2009). [Explained in full detail, pp. 25-35.]
The language revitalization approach, based on immersion models used in early childhood and K-12 education, focuses less on the academic aspects of language learning (formal assessment), and more on an holistic approach to Indigenous language revitalization that connects the adult learner to ancestral roots; to their language, culture, and spirituality (Gordon, 2009).
One of very few adult immersion programs began at Six Nations Territory (Kanien’keha/Mohawk), and was developed in response to the lack of language fluency being developed from a weekly language class (Gordon, 2009; Maracle & Richards, 2002). This program was offered in an informal, small group (twelve) setting, utilizing a rented house within the community for language and cultural immersion (Maracle & Richards, 2002), meeting five days per week during regular school/work hours (Gordon, 2009). Its intention was to be a strong/total immersion program (Morcom, n.d.), focusing on oral language skills and traditions, with instruction from community based fluent language speakers (Maracle & Richards, 2002); however, it faced some difficulty, as some adult learners struggled with the concept of ‘immersion’, and often resorted to the use of English to attempt to frame understanding of the Mohawk language (Maracle & Richards, 2002).
The results and challenges of the Six Nations adult immersion program was its breakdown into a weak immersion program, bordering on second language training (Morcom, n.d.), where adult learners seemed to focus on learning about the language (i.e.: focusing on grammar constructs), rather than on learning the language to achieve the ability to converse naturally and explore culture and traditional language with Elders and fluent language speakers in the community (Maracle & Richards, 2002). Other factors negatively affecting Indigenous language learning were lack of English literacy in some adult learners, whereby “success was more likely if the students had a good sense of [English] structure, a better than average vocabulary, and the ability to use vocabulary effectively” (Maracle & Richards, 2002, p.130). Interestingly, this was also a factor with some of the fluent language speakers participating in the instruction of the program, as many were orally fluent in the language, but had no academic foundation in their language, so were not able to give effective instruction on the structure and grammar constructs of the Mohawk language (Maracle & Richards, 2002).
It is now apparent that adequately trained fluent Indigenous language instructors from the community are key to creating a successful Indigenous language immersion program for adults within their communities. Indigenous language immersion, for adult learners, seems to root itself in the desire to revitalize Indigenous culture, language, and spirituality, in an informal setting (learning for the sake of learning), without the need for academic status or accreditation. Indigenous language immersion differs from French language immersion programming, where little, if any, French culture or spirituality is included in the learning activities. There needs to be more initiatives for adult learners put in place in Indigenous communities across Turtle Island, and more research opportunities, as research and literature on the subject is extremely limited in comparison to ECE and K-12 immersion programs.
References
Gordon, C.J. (2009). Anishinaabemowin pane: A qualitative exploratory case study of an Indigenous language immersion revitalization program (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). Retrieved from: http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/305164171.html?FMT=AI&pubnum=3360094
Maracle, D. K., & Richards, M. (2002). A Native language immersion programme for adults: Reflections on year 1. In B. Burnaby & J. A. Reyhner (Eds.), Indigenous languages across the community (pp. 127-136). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.
Morcom, L., (n.d.). Language immersion and school success: What can I expect for my child?. Unpublished manuscript, Faculty of Education, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
